Posts – Page 16 – Ag Safety and Health

May 17, 2019January 26, 2021

PA Agricultural Rescue Training

Ag Rescue Training

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

Recognizing the importance of agricultural rescue training and the lack of such training for county and state emergency responders, members of the Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) Agricultural Safety and Health team developed the PA Agricultural Rescue Training program to provide necessary training to emergency service workers so that they can respond effectively to agricultural emergencies.

Website Link

Click here to be directed to the PA Agricultural Rescue Training website.

Target Audience

The training is designed for local emergency service workers, including fire, rescue, emergency medical services (EMS), county animal response team (CART), and police.

Learning Objectives and Goals

The PA Agricultural Rescue Training program at Penn State is concerned with developing and delivering training that will:

help emergency personnel become aware of the many hazards that could happen while managing an agricultural emergency.
help emergency personnel understand the importance of pre-planning for various farm emergencies in their communities.
help fire, EMS, and CART units specialize in various aspects of agricultural rescue—such as incidents involving machinery, chemicals, animals, or confined spaces—and become technically competent in at least one of these areas.
encourage fire, EMS, and CART units to work together to develop effective agricultural rescue strategies that will result in higher quality pre-hospital patient care and animal response.
teach emergency responders to be proficient within their area of expertise (fire, rescue, EMS, CART) while managing farm emergencies.

Learning Activities

Ag Rescue Training

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

PA Agricultural Rescue is divided into module units. Depending on the units, sessions are taught in one or two days of classroom instruction. Many of the training opportunities involve classroom instruction and hands-on experiential learning. The following modules are available:

Agricultural Emergencies Awareness provides an overview of agricultural emergencies.
Emergency Rescue in an Agricultural Environment trains responders about the uniqueness of farm rescues and provides instruction in the application of learned techniques in non-farm emergencies.
Managing Farm Chemical Emergencies trains responders to evaluate and respond to emergencies involving agricultural chemicals.
Farm Confined Space Emergencies Awareness trains responders to recognize and evaluate various farm confined space emergencies. Participants learn to apply OSHA Confined Space Standards to confined space situations and to respond effectively to this type of emergency.
Large Animal Rescue Training trains CART members and emergency responders to better manage emergencies involving large (farm) animals.
Introduction to Grain Elevator and Feed Mill Fires teaches emergency responders about the importance of preplanning for fires and emergencies involving grain elevators and feed mills.
Animals in Barn Fires provides participants with an understanding of farm animal behavior and how animals may react in a fire situation.

Evaluation

Participants are required to complete a pre- and post-test for each module and to perform certain hands-on activities (many of these activities, depending on subject area, are team based). Each participant completes a class evaluation at the end of the training event.

Use the following format to cite this article:

PA agricultural rescue training. (2021) Ag Safety and Heatlh eXtension Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://ag-safety.extension.org/pagricultural-rescue-training.

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

Dave E. Hill, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

National AgrAbility Project

AgrAbility is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to provide direct services to farmers and ranchers with disabilities or long-term health conditions that impact their ability to work in production agriculture. National, state, and regional AgrAbility Projects are partnerships between land-grant institutions and nonprofit disability services organizations. AgrAbility’s objectives include:

developing service capacity by presenting educational programs designed to increase a producer’s capabilities, adapting new technologies, and delivering program content at educational activities venues;
encouraging networking to foster information sharing; and
providing direct services to agricultural workers.

AgrAbility’s Mission Statement

The vision of AgrAbility is to enable a high-quality lifestyle for farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural workers with disabilities, so that they, their families, and their communities continue to succeed in rural America. For this target audience, success may be defined by many parameters, including:

gainful employment in production agriculture or a related occupation;
access to appropriate assistive technology needed for work and daily living activities;
evidence-based information related to the treatment and rehabilitation of disabling conditions; and
targeted support for family caregivers of AgrAbility customers.

Click here to locate the AgrAbility Project in your area.

Assistive Technology for Agricultural Producers

Agricultural producers with disabilities or chronic health conditions who have difficulties completing their responsibilities on the farm or ranch may benefit from assistive technology (AT). Per the Assistive Technology Act of 1998, AT can be defined as any item, piece of equipment, or product system—whether modified, customized, or acquired commercially off the shelf—that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. The following list provides examples of assistive technology for agricultural producers:

Extra steps and handrails on a tractor help a producer with arthritis get in and out of the cab of a tractor.
An automatic hitching system enables a producer with mobility impairment to hitch and unhitch wagons while he or she remains in the tractor seat, reducing the strain on the knees and hips.
An automatic feed cart enables a person with a back impairment who can no longer use a wheelbarrow to feed a dairy herd.

Click here to be directed to the searchable online version of “The Toolbox,” a compilation of assistive technology solutions for producers with disabilities developed by the Breaking New Ground Resource Center.

Source

Assistive technology act. (1998) U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-118/pdf/STATUTE-118-Pg1707.pdf.

Use the following format to cite this article:

National AgrAbility Project. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63162/national-agrability-project.

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Kerri Ebert, Kansas State University – kebert@ksu.edu

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University – (Has since retired)

Rob Stuthridge, Purdue University

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019February 24, 2021

Entrapment Risks due to Flowing Grain

Use the following format to cite this article:

Entrapment risks due to flowing grain. (2021) Ag Safety and Health eXtension Community of Practice. Retrieved from https://ag-safety.extension.org/entrapment-risk-due-to-flowing-grain/.

Farmers and ranchers use bins to dry and store grain and to feed their livestock. For the most part, augers are used to transfer the grain to and from bins. Some machinery and augers now used in production agriculture have increased in size and power, resulting in less time for farmers and ranchers to react in dangerous situations. It is therefore important to understand fully the hazards and risks associated with flowing grain and to follow safety guidelines to avoid a potentially fatal injury incident. There are four main situations that pose entrapment risks when you work with stored grain: flowing grain, grain bridge collapse, grain wall avalanche, and use of a grain vacuum. Each of these situations and its entrapment risks are described below.

Flowing Grain

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

An auger is used to move grain from the bottom center to the outer edge of a grain bin, and from there into a vehicle or alternative storage area. As the grain flows, it forms a funnel, with the wide mouth of the funnel at the top and a smaller opening at the bottom, as shown in the diagram above. If you are in the bin when the grain is being unloaded, you can quickly become engulfed in grain. Depending on the size of the auger, you can be trapped in grain up to your waist within 10 seconds and completely submerged within 25 seconds. Once you are submerged in grain, it can take over 1,000 lb. of force to free your body.

Grain Bridge Collapse

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

A grain bridge forms when grain in poor condition exists throughout a bin. Cavities or pockets of loose grain can form under the crusted level when the auger begins to unload grain from the bin. Grain bridges are not stable, and if you are standing on top of a grain bridge when it collapses, you can quickly become entrapped in the grain. Once you fall through the grain bridge and are trapped, it may be difficult to locate you because the grain will flow rapidly into the area around you.

The proper way to break up or remove a grain bridge is to use a long pole inserted through an access hole from outside the grain bin.

Grain Wall Avalanche

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

Moldy or frozen grain can cling to the side of a grain bin, as shown in the diagram above. A grain avalanche can occur when you are breaking up crusted grain from within a bin and the grain wall is higher than you. The grain wall can collapse, creating an avalanche that can quickly engulf you, causing injury or death.

If you must enter a bin, use a body harness and a safety line that is securely tied off. Work above the vertical grain wall, staying above its highest point.

Use of a Grain Vacuum

Grain vacuums are being used with higher frequency as a means of moving grain rapidly from older bins with smaller unloading augers, bins in remote locations without augers, and bins that have mechanical problems. Powered by a tractor power take-off, electricity, or an external motor, these vacuums have the capacity to move several thousand bushels of grain an hour. Typically, an operator uses the vacuum inside the bin, moving the nozzle in a sweeping motion. During the last few years, several operators have been killed when using the equipment in this manner. If the operator drops or releases the nozzle, it can quickly become buried in grain. As a result, the operator may try to lift the nozzle while the vacuum is running. This can cause the grain to be sucked out from under the operator, burying him or her in seconds.

Below are two videos that demonstrate the use of a grain vacuum. To view a grain vacuum in use within a bin, click on the video below.

To see a grain vacuum transferring grain into a truck, click on the video below.

Suffocation in Grain Bins

Flowing grain is similar to quicksand and can quickly engulf you, resulting in suffocation. When even a small amount of grain has space to move, it quickly fills in that new area. When you are trapped by grain and exhale to breathe, the grain flows into the space created by the movement of your chest, placing pressure on your chest and reducing the space that your lungs have to expand during your next inhalation. Each time you exhale a breath, the space around your chest decreases, eventually causing you to suffocate as you take smaller and smaller breaths (or shallower and shallower). When you are trapped in flowing grain, you can also suffocate from taking grain particles into your lungs, stomach, and throat.

Entrapment in Grain Transport Vehicles

Entrapment incidents can occur in grain transport vehicles that are used to move grain from one location to another. The most common types of grain transport vehicles are gravity wagons and bulk material semitrailers. Entrapment in these vehicles is similar to entrapment in a grain bin: a quicksand effect can occur during the loading or unloading process.

Safety Recommendations

Lock all access doors to grain storage structures.
Secure grain bin ladders and doors to prevent unauthorized entry, especially by children.
Never allow children to play or ride in grain wagons. Most grain entrapment incidents in on-farm transport vehicles involve children.
Apply entrapment warning decals to all grain bins, wagons, and grain storage areas, as well as commercial transport vehicles.
Never work alone! When working with others during grain unloading, know where each person is located and what he or she is doing.
Warn workers, family members, and visitors about the dangers of flowing grain and the risk of entrapment.
Establish a nonverbal communication system with others when working around flowing grain because of the excessive equipment noise levels.
When possible, use inspection holes and grain bin level markers rather than physically entering a grain bin.
Before entering the grain bin, lock out and tag out all power controls to unloading augers and conveyors.
If you must enter the grain bin, wear a body harness with a lifeline secured to the outside of the bin, and have at least one other person observing your work activity in the bin.
When cleaning a grain bin, always work from top to bottom.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Entrapment risks due to flowing grain. (2021) Ag Safety and Health eXtension Community of Practice. Retrieved from https://ag-safety.extension.org/entrapment-risk-due-to-flowing-grain/.

Sources

LaPrade, J. (2008) Grain bin hazards and safety considerations. Alabama Cooperative Extension System. Retrieved from https://store.aces.edu/(S(wgo00aqtzi1ami55t4ckx255))/ItemDetail.aspx?ProductID=16178&SeriesCode=&CategoryID=144&Keyword=&cn-reloaded=1.

Schwab, C., Hanna, M. & Miller, L. (2004) Handle your grain harvest with care. Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. Retrieved from https://store.extension.iastate.edu/ItemDetail.aspx?ProductID=4614.

Grain bin hazards. (2019). Ohio State University Extension Agricultural Tailgate Safety Training. Retrieved from https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/aex-59155.

Yoder, A., Murphy, D. & Hilton, J. (2003). Hazards of flowing grain. Pennsylvania State University College of Agricultural Sciences Cooperative Extension. Retrieved from https://extension.psu.edu/hazards-of-flowing-grain.

Reviewers, Contributors, and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

LaMar Grafft, East Carolina University – grafftl@ecu.edu

Davis E. Hill, Pennsylvania State University – Has since retired

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University – Has since retired

J. Samuel Steel, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019January 26, 2021

Confined Spaces: Emergencies and Rescue

Use the following format to cite this article:

Confined space: Emergencies and rescue. (2012) Ag Safety and Health eXtension Community of Practice. Retrieved from https://ag-safety.extension.org/confined-spaces-emergencies-and-rescue/.

Entering a confined-space manure storage area can be deadly. Farm and ranch managers, family members, and employees must have a complete understanding of what to do in the event of a confined-space emergency and ways to avoid such an incident.

If you find a victim unresponsive in a manure storage area, immediately call 911. Inform the operator that the incident involves a person in a confined-space manure storage area so that the appropriate emergency response personnel can be dispatched to the scene. Emergency responders trained in confined-space rescue will be equipped with the necessary rescue apparatus and gas detection equipment. Do not enter the manure storage area under any circumstances.

While waiting for an emergency response team, ventilate the area by blowing fresh air into the space, moving the toxic air away from the victim. Keep a ventilation fan readily available specifically for such emergencies. When using a fan, be aware of the following recommendations:

Do not use typical barn or home fans to ventilate manure-storage areas because they may emit sparks from static electricity or an electrical short. If flammable methane gas has collected in the storage area, a spark could cause a fire.
Never attempt to get fresh air closer to the victim by lowering a fan into the confined space.
Make sure that the ventilation fan does not blow the manure gases back toward you, affecting your breathable air.

Preventing Confined-Space Manure Storage Emergencies

Take the following precautions on your farm or ranch to reduce the risk of a confined-space manure storage emergency:

Warning Signs: Post warning signs (example is shown below) about the risks of confined spaces and gas hazards at the openings to manure storage areas. Include warnings against walking or driving on crusted manure surfaces.

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

Limited Access: Limit access to manure storage areas to authorized personnel. Take these specific steps to keep people away from manure storage areas:
- Equip exterior ladders with locking mechanisms.
- Remove temporary-access ladders from areas surrounding aboveground tanks.
- When manure storage areas are open, place barricades at the openings of storage areas.
- Install and maintain fencing around uncovered ground-level storage areas such as manure ponds or lagoons.
Education: Educate employees, family members, and visitors about the hazards associated with manure storage in confined spaces.
Entry Plan: Prepare and document an entry plan for entering confined spaces where manure is stored. Review the entry plan annually with all employees and family members. The entry plan should include specific physical details about the confined space, descriptions of potential hazards, reasons for entry, procedures for entry, and procedures to follow during emergencies.
Two-Person Minimum: Require that two people be present for any confined-space entry and that both individuals be trained in entry and rescue techniques. The person outside the manure storage area should maintain verbal and visual contact with the person inside the confined space at all times. The person outside the storage area should be available to summon help and to implement the rescue and retrieval system if necessary. This person should not enter the manure storage area, even in the event of an emergency.
Gas Detection: Use gas detection equipment to monitor oxygen levels and levels of explosive and toxic gases in the confined space.

Gas Monitor

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

Ventilation: Prior to entry, ventilate the confined-space manure storage area for a minimum of 15 minutes and continue ventilation during entry and occupancy. A positive-pressure ventilation system is recommended because of the reduced risk of fire or explosion.
Body Harness: Require that the person entering the manure storage area carry a portable gas monitor and wear an adjustable body harness with a lifeline attached to a rescue and retrieval system. A typical rescue and retrieval system uses a tripod device equipped with a winch to limit a person’s fall and retrieve a person who has been incapacitated.
Power-Source Lockout: To reduce the risk of stray electricity, prior to entry, lock out all power sources in the confined-space manure storage area other than the positive-pressure ventilation system.

Additional Safety Recommendations

Remember that youth under the age of 16 are prohibited from working in confined spaces.
Provide training about the hazards associated with confined-space manure storage to every person working on, living on, or visiting the farm or ranch.
Ventilate manure storage areas appropriately to increase oxygen and decrease explosive and toxic manure gases.
Remove personnel and animals from the confinement building during manure storage agitation or pumping. If you are unable to remove the animals, maximize ventilation and begin agitating very slowly while monitoring the animals for abnormal behavior.
Prohibit smoking in and around manure storage areas.
Operate manure agitators below the surface of liquid manure to reduce the release of manure gases.
Leave 1 to 2 cu. ft. of space above the manure to contain released gases. If you are unable to leave the recommended space, lower the manure level prior to agitation.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Confined space: Emergencies and rescue. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from https://ag-safety.extension.org/confined-spaces-emergencies-and-rescue/.

Sources

Hallman, E. & Aldrich, B. (2007) Hydrogen sulfide in manure handling systems: Health and safety issues. Cornell University Manure Management Program. Retrieved from https://ecommons.cornell.edu/handle/1813/60609.

Hill, D., Murphy, D., Steel, J., & Manbeck, H. (2011) Confined space manure storage emergencies. Penn State Extension. Retrieved from https://extension.psu.edu/confined-space-manure-storage-emergencies.

Ogejo, J. (2009) Poultry and livestock manure storage: Management and safety. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved from https://pubs.ext.vt.edu/442/442-308/442-308.html.

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

LaMar Grafft, East Carolina University – grafftl@ecu.edu

Davis E. Hill, Pennsylvania State University – (has since retired)

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University – (has since retired)

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

Age-Appropriate Tasks for Children on Farms and Ranches

Use the following format to cite this article:

Age-appropriate tasks for children on farms and ranches. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63149/age-appropriate-tasks-for-children-on-farms-and-ranches.

Children play an active role on many farms and ranches, but it is the responsibility of parents, caregivers, or supervisors to assign them age-appropriate tasks, restrict access to work areas, give easy-to-understand instructions, provide personal protective equipment (PPE), maintain equipment with operational safety devices, and provide supervision to reduce the risk of injury or death. The most common causes of agricultural-related fatalities for children are machinery or tractor accidents, drowning, and motor vehicle accidents, including accidents involving all-terrain vehicles (ATV). Most nonfatal injuries result from falls or incidents with livestock.

Because rates of physical and mental development can vary from child to child, understanding how children develop is critical to identifying age-appropriate tasks for them. A child’s size, strength, motor skills, and coordination are all factors in determining whether he or she is physically able to complete certain tasks. But you must also determine whether a child has the cognitive skills to understand and follow instructions, make good decisions, and understand that unsafe actions may have consequences that lead to injury or death. Click here to view Children and Safety on the Farm, a publication furnished by Penn State Extension that provides a comprehensive chart of the developmental characteristics of children from birth through age 18 and offers details about how children develop, common causes of injury or death for each age group, strategies to prevent accidents, and appropriate work tasks.

Choosing the Right Tasks

Child feeding calf

(Source: Pennsylvania State University. Agricultural Safety and Health)

Children are eager to work on the farm or ranch alongside other family or team members. However, it is important to understand that each farm task has a certain level of risk associated with it. Children working on a farm or ranch need the appropriate physical and cognitive maturity to complete any assigned tasks. The North American Guidelines for Children’s Agricultural Tasks (NAGCAT) guidelines are contained in a searchable database that enables you to identify a farm task and follow a checklist to determine a child’s ability to complete the task. Click here to be linked to the National Children’s Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety – Safety Guidelines to determine whether a farm task is appropriate for a child.

Key Points about Children Working on Farms and Ranches:

A child should never be an extra rider on a tractor. The rule is “one seat one rider.”
Supervise all children. Do not leave them alone on the farm or ranch.
Provide children with the appropriate PPE for a given task and teach children the proper use and fit of any items of PPE.
Keep equipment in proper working condition.
Do not allow visiting children into farm work areas; restrict such areas to children working on the farm.
Be a good role model by wearing PPE and following safe operating procedures.
If children are not physically and cognitively ready to work on the farm, ensure that they have appropriate child care and are not in farm work areas.
Routinely inspect your farm or ranch for hazards and immediately remove these dangers.
Encourage children to participate in local farm and ranch safety activities. To learn more about farm safety activities in your area, contact your local Cooperative Extension office. Click here to link to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) listing of Cooperative Extension offices.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Sources

2011 Fact Sheet: Childhood Agricultural Injuries. (2011) National Children’s Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety. Retrieved from https://www3.marshfieldclinic.org/proxy///mcrf-centers-nfmc-nccrahs-chil….

Graham, L. & Oesterreich, L. (2004) Farm safety for young children. Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. Retrieved from https://store.extension.iastate.edu/ItemDetail.aspx?ProductID=5097.

Murphy, D. & Hackett, K. (1997) Children and safety on the farm. Pennsylvania State University College of Agricultural Sciences Cooperative Extension. Retrieved from http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ub030.pdf.

National Children’s Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety – Safety Guidelines (2017) Retrieved from https://www.cultivatesafety.org/safety-guidelines-search/?category=famil….

Schwab, C., Shutske, J., & Miller, L. (2001) Match age, abilities to farm chores. Iowa State University Extension and Outreach. Retrieved from https://store.extension.iastate.edu/ItemDetail.aspx?ProductID=4994.

Youth agricultural safety. (2003) Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.marshfieldclinic.org/proxy/mcrf-centers-nfmc-resources-childr….

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

Prosper Doamekpor, Tuskegee University – doamekpor@mytu.tuskegee.edu

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Michael Pate, Pennsylvania State University – mlp79@psu.edu

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

Do cows have similar vision to humans?

No, cows have what is referred to as panoramic vision. This means they can see things in all directions without moving their heads. They have 300° vision because they can see everything except what is directly behind them. A person approaching a cow from directly behind the animal is in a very dangerous position as the cow’s natural reaction is to kick toward the unseen danger.

Cows have poor depth perception. If there is an object on the ground or a shadow in a cow’s path, the cow will likely stop and put its head down before proceeding. When trying to move cows, stay within their field of vision and check the path of movement for any objects or shadows that may cause the cow to stop.

Certain fence and gate configurations may challenge a cow’s depth perception, making it difficult to move the animal efficiently. For example, a cow will not perceive an opening that is at a right angle to the end of an alleyway. The animal will balk at being moved in this situation.

For more information about moving cattle, click here to view the article “Beef Cattle Handling Safety.”

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

Manure Foaming

Foaming Manure – Source: Schimdt, UMN.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Manure foaming. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63144/manure-foaming.

Foam in manure pits can be a danger both to animals and workers around the pits. Manure foaming occurs primarily in hog facilities, most commonly in the midwestern United States and Canada. The causes of manure foaming remain a mystery. Manure foaming is not predictable, and no known solutions work in every situation. It is therefore important to understand the risks posed by foaming manure and ways to reduce those risks.

Foam is defined as a mass of bubbles of gas on the surface of a liquid. Rather than being crusty or fluffy, foaming manure has a thick, mucous consistency. In manure pits, the bubbles do not burst but rather cling together.

One theory suggests that a specific microbial population causes foaming in manure pits. Another theory suggests that filamentous microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, or algae) are the cause. Neither theory has been confirmed, and research into the causes of manure foaming continues. Possible triggers include a high content of manure solids resulting from water conservation practices; cool weather patterns; reduced antibiotic use; feeding or diet adjustments; changes in DDGS; changes in corn, including genetic modifications; moldy and/or lightweight corn; and changes in the type or quantity of fat fed to the animals.

Dangers of Foaming Manure

Foam in manure pits may be linked to suffocation of hogs and incidents of fire and explosion. Methane (CH₄) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) are gases produced during the anaerobic breakdown of manure. Methane is a highly flammable gas that can lead to asphyxiation at high levels. The foam in manure pits captures methane, resulting in concentrations of methane in the foam that can be as high as 60% to 70% (600,000 to 700,000 ppm), which is higher than the concentration at which explosions can occur. When the foam bubbles are disturbed or broken, the captured methane is released at an explosive concentration of 5% to 20% (50,000 to 200,000 ppm). If there is an ignition source near an explosive concentration of methane, an explosion or a flash fire could occur.

Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless gas that smells like rotten eggs at low levels but can overcome a person’s sense of smell at levels of 100 ppm or higher. Hydrogen sulfide is heavier than air and can collect in the floor or lower areas of the pit. Exposure to hydrogen sulfide can cause eye and nose irritation, headache, nausea, and death.

In addition to the danger of explosion or fire, foaming manure poses an asphyxiation risk for both people and hogs when foam rises through the slats in a barn. Anyone working within the building or in the immediate area should be informed about the dangers of foaming manure, including the hazards of methane and hydrogen sulfide. No smoking should be permitted in or near the building.

Methods of Treatment

There are no proven ways to prevent manure foaming; at present, the focus remains on treating the symptoms. Below are some treatments that have yielded mixed results:

Water – Spraying water, running sprinklers, or using soaker systems can break the bubbles in foam, releasing the methane in a relatively safe manner. If you are using water to break down foam, remember to follow recommended ventilation practices.
Antifoam agents – There are several antifoam agents on the market. Although some have had limited success in reducing foam, none have proven effective on a consistent basis.
Microbial enhancements – Microbial enhancements, typically in the form of feed or manure additives, have been effective on an inconsistent basis.
Microbial control – Microbial control refers to changes in pH or oxygen levels or the use of antibiotics.

Due to the unpredictable nature of manure foaming, you should complete an audit of manure pits at least once a month. The purpose of the audit is to monitor pits for changes in manure consistency, increases in foam, and other such indicators of a potential problem. Based on information gathered in the audit, you can make necessary management decisions about using a treatment or changing the pumping schedule.

Emergency Action Plans

Develop an emergency action plan and review it annually with employees. It is especially important that anyone on-site during pit pumping receive training about the action plan. The emergency action plan should include a list of clean-up and containment practices in the event of an overflow, breach, leak, fire, or emergency land application. Due to the potential risk of fire or explosion, include in the action plan an evacuation route for employees. In addition, make sure that all employees know the location of fire extinguishers, hose cabinets, fire blankets, and other types of safety equipment. As a farm or ranch manager, make sure that you have necessary safety equipment and that it is in proper working order.

During pit pumping, remember to keep on hand the contact information of first responders, including the fire department, hospital, and police. When calling 911, give your name, location, contact information, and details about the emergency.

Precautions during Agitation and Pumping

When foaming manure is present, the risk of explosion necessitates additional precautions during pit agitation and pumping. It is strongly recommended that you pump manure pits when the barn is empty. People should remain outside of the building during agitation and pumping. After checking that everyone is out of the facility, add a physical barrier such as yellow caution tape or place warning signs to ensure that no one enters the facility during the process.

Any ignition sources should be turned off and locked out. Possible ignition sources include welders, heaters, motors, and other equipment, such as a feeding system, that uses electricity. (Because of the importance of ventilation, discussed in the next section, ventilation systems that use electricity may operate during agitation and pumping.)

Do not agitate the manure until the top of the manure surface is at least two feet below the floor slats. Agitate the manure below the surface of the liquid manure and stop the process if you can no longer agitate below the surface level. Agitate intermittently to reduce the risk of sudden gas release.

When possible, cover pump-out ports unless they are needed for agitation or manure load-out, and cover the pump-out around the agitation with a tarp. After pumping is complete, remember to secure manure pit covers.

Ventilation during Agitation and Pumping

Proper ventilation is one of the most important safety measures during agitation and pumping of manure pits. Regularly check your ventilation system to ensure that it is in proper working condition. Use a ventilation rate of 20 to 30 cfm per animal to dilute the methane concentration below 5%. Ventilation inlets, curtains, and pivot doors should be open during the ventilation process. For naturally ventilated barns, make sure that inlets and outlets are open. Circulation fans used in the summer do not provide the necessary air exchange needed during agitation or pumping, so plan these processes for days when wind is present to increase the amount of fresh air circulating through the building.

Ventilation for Curtain-Sided Barns

Ventilation procedures for curtain-sided barns differ slightly depending on weather conditions. When the weather is warm with winds over 5 mph, run exhaust fans while the curtains are open. On a calm day, the sidewall curtains should remain closed with the fans running. If, however, you are running more than half of the fans, the curtains should remain open during the pumping process. During colder weather, keep the curtains closed while running the exhaust fans.

If you are using a stir fan, use a horizontally directed fan rather than a fan directed downward, to reduce pockets of gas concentrations and to ensure that contaminated gas does not blow back onto hogs. Ventilate for approximately one to two hours after pumping and prior to entering the barn.

Ventilation for Tunnel-Ventilated Barns

During warm or hot weather, run all of the pit fans and a minimum of two tunnel fans. The procedure is slightly different for cold or moderate weather, but you should nevertheless run all of the pit fans and the 36 in. fan and open the tunnel curtain approximately 6 to 12 in. to provide air movement through the entire length of the barn. Remember to reduce the static pressure of the inlet velocity at the tunnel curtain from the regular setting of 800 fpm to 1,000 fpm to a lower setting of 300 fpm to 400 fpm. During both cold and hot weather, partially close mechanized/motorized ceiling inlets to allow air to enter from the tunnel curtain. Ventilate for approximately one to two hours after pumping and prior to entering the barn.

Resources

Click here to watch an informative video by Dr. David Schmidt from Iowa State University Extension about foaming manure pits.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Manure foaming. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63144/manure-foaming.

Sources

Burns, R. & Moody, L. (2009) Literature review – deep pit swine facility flash fires and explosions: Sources, occurrences, factors, and management. Iowa State University Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering. No longer available online.

Foaming manure. (2011) Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/swine/news/mayjun10a1.htm.

Jacobson, L. (n.d.) Safety measures to prevent barn explosions during pit pumping. University of Minnesota Extension. Retrieved from http://www.agweb.com/article/safety-measures-to-prevent-barn-explosions-….

Rieck-Hinz, A., Shouse, S., & Brenneman, G. (2010) A top ten list: Preparing for fall manure application. Iowa State University, Iowa Manure Management Action Group. Retrieved from http://www.agronext.iastate.edu/immag/info/toptenlist.pdf.

Understanding foam and pump-out safety. (2010) Iowa Pork Producers Association. No longer available online.

Reviewers, Contributors and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

LaMar Grafft, East Carolina University – grafftl@ecu.edu

Davis E. Hill, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Ron Odell, Cactus Feeders, LTD. – ron-odell@cactusfeeders.com

Cheryl Skjolaas, University of Wisconsin – skjolaas@wisc.edu

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

Back Injuries and Production Agriculture

Use the following format to cite this article:

Back injuries and production agriculture. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63143/back-injuries-and-production-agricu….

Farmers and ranchers are vulnerable to developing back injuries because of risk factors in the workplace such as awkward postures, whole-body vibration, repetitive motions, and forceful exertions, including heaving lifting. According to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), back injuries are one of the leading causes of disability in the workplace and cause human suffering and loss of productivity and strain the compensation system.

The spine is composed of vertebrae, bony blocks stacked on top of each other to support the trunk and head, allow flexibility, and protect the spinal cord. Discs act as cushions between vertebrae and have strong outer shells and jelly-like middles. The muscles located on the back, abdomen, and buttocks provide stability and help maintain proper posture.

A back injury can develop gradually from a repetitive activity or suddenly from a single traumatic event, such as improperly lifting a load or lifting a load that is too heavy. Back impairments can range from mild and temporary to incapacitating and permanent. Many acute back injuries occur when doing activities, such as the following, that exceed the capacity of muscles, tendons, or discs:

Reaching while lifting or lifting with bad posture
Engaging in unaccustomed work
Engaging in repetitive lifting with inadequate rest
Bending or twisting while lifting
Lifting objects that are too heavy
Lifting with improper foot placement

Prolonged driving of vehicles that cause whole-body vibration, such as tractors or trucks, can be a risk factor for developing a back impairment. Whole-body vibration can aggravate existing back injuries and increase pain levels.

Typical treatment for a back injury can include physical therapy and medication, but more complex treatments may be necessary for a debilitating back impairment. Therapy usually involves stretching exercises, walking, and normal activity, provided that activity is not excessively strenuous. Consult a health care professional for specific treatment recommendations.

Strategies to Prevent Back Injuries

A back impairment can happen in any type of home, work, or recreational environment. Basic injury-prevention strategies include staying healthy and fit, maintaining good posture, and getting regular exercise. According to WorkSafeBC, using the following strategies when bending, lifting, and carrying objects can help reduce the risk of a back impairment:

Place your feet apart to improve your balance and center your body weight.
Maintain a good grip on the object and use appropriate gloves when needed.
Keep a straight back when possible and avoid awkward postures.
Hold the object as close to your body as possible.
Use smooth, slow motions to lift and carry a load.
Never twist your back or waist, but rather pivot with your feet if you need to turn.
When you have the option, push rather than pull a load.
Prior to lifting, make sure that there are no obstructions in your intended path.
Get help with heavy, awkward loads.

Responding to Back Injuries

If you are the manager at a farm or ranch and there is a pattern of back injuries related to a specific task, you should examine the task and complete a job safety analysis (JSA) to identify hazards associated with the task and develop controls to reduce the risk of injury for workers.

Additional Recommendations

When possible, rely on machinery or equipment such as pushcarts, hand trucks, wheelbarrows, or hoists to move objects.
If you are taking medication for a back injury, check prescriptions and any over-the-counter medications to ensure that medication will not impact your ability to safely operate equipment.
Work with a partner to lift objects that are heavy or bulky. Team lifting should be done by two people of similar size who can communicate and work together.
Rotate employees between lifting and nonlifting tasks.

For a demonstration of proper lifting techniques, watch the following video:

Video of NgKEidZynfM

Resource

Click here to view back stretching and strengthening exercises recommended by the Mayo Clinic.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Sources

Back disorders and injuries. (n.d.) OSHA Technical Manual. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_vii/otm_vii_1.html.

Back talk: An owner’s manual for backs. (2010) Workers Compensation Board of British Columbia. Retrieved from http://www.okneurospine.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/backTalk.pdf.

Sesto, M. (2002) Chronic musculoskeletal disorders in agriculture for partners in agricultural health. University of Wisconsin–Madison: Department of Industrial Engineering. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0e39/28668ec0d7aa2d4b8d26463e8e1107966a….

Whole-body vibration in agriculture. (2009) Health and Safety Executive. Retrieved from http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/ais20.pdf.

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

Andrew Merryweather, University of Utah – a.merryweather@utah.edu

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Robert Stuthridge, Purdue University – rstuthri@purdue.edu

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

Grain Dust Explosions

(Source: Penn State Ag Safety and Health)

Use the following format to cite this article:

Grain dust explosions. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63142/grain-dust-explosions.

Grain dust explosions of any size can cause damage to equipment, reduced work time, and injury or death. By controlling grain dust emissions, you can provide a cleaner and safer work environment for your employees and community.

Grain dust is highly combustible, so a fire or an explosion can happen at a large grain-handling facility or in a grain-storage area on a local farm or ranch. Four basic elements must be present for a grain dust explosion to occur: fuel, oxygen, confinement, and an ignition source.

Fuel: dust particles from wheat, oats, barley, or other types of grain that are suspended in the air or layers of grain dust in a confined space
Oxygen: normal oxygen levels and a continuous air supply
Confinement: areas of confined space such as grain bins, basement tunnels, bin deck galleries, silos, downspouts, and enclosed drag conveyors
Ignition source: short circuits, static electricity, lit cigarettes or lighters, overheated bearings, friction, cutting torches or welding devices, grinder sparks, lightning, and so on

Explosiveness of Grain Dust

The explosiveness of dust from different types of grain depends on the dust’s minimum explosive concentration (MEC), a measurement of particle size and energy nature. The accepted MEC for grain dust explosions is approximately 0.05 oz. per cu. ft. The optimum explosive concentration (OEC) equates to about 10 times the MEC, approximately 0.5 to 1.0 oz. per cu. ft. The MEC and OEC measurements vary depending on the type of grain. In an enclosed space with a height of 2 ft., the minimum depth of dust that can lead to explosion is 0.002 to 0.004 in. A typical sheet of paper is approximately 0.004 in. thick, so that critical MEC level can be reached in a very short time. Maintaining grain dust levels at or below the MEC reduces the risk of explosion and increases visibility for workers.

Characteristics of a Dust Explosion

There are two phases in a major dust explosion: a primary explosion and a secondary explosion. The explosions, however, can happen almost simultaneously, so distinguishing between the primary and secondary explosions can be difficult. The dust from the first explosion may actually provide fuel for the secondary explosion by shaking loose settled dust. If fuel, oxygen, and an ignition source are present in a confined space, a series of destructive explosions can occur that may cause structural damage.

Most grain dust explosions occur at grain transfer points. At the transfer points, the movement of grain causes dust to be released at high levels, resulting in suspended dust particles. The suspended dust may collect in leg boots and elevator legs. Dust concentrations in bucket elevators can exceed MEC levels and pose the risk of explosion.

Preventing Grain Dust Explosions

To reduce the risk of a grain dust explosion or fire, focus on controlling dust and reducing the sources of ignition. Preventative measures include continuous housekeeping, sanitation, and regularly scheduled maintenance. Implement a housekeeping or sanitation program to decrease grain dust in all work areas. Leg boots should be cleaned routinely to remove excess dust and kernels. Additional preventative steps include:

Developing and implementing a routine lubrication plan for bearings on the basis of the manufacturer’s recommendations
Developing and implementing a standard operating procedure (SOP) for housekeeping practices to minimize grain dust accumulation
Using a food-grade mineral spray on grain that is being transferred
Installing a bearing-temperature monitor in strategic locations throughout the grain handling system and implementing a program to periodically monitor bearing temperature
Installing belt-rub sensors inside bucket-elevator leg casings
Substituting steel cups with plastic cups in elevator legs
Using antistatic belting material in legs and horizontal belt conveyors
Establishing easy-to-open cleanout doors in the leg-boot side panel for easy removal of grain and dust
Installing dust aspiration systems or a ventilation system at grain transfer points
Training employees in safe work practices so that they can recognize and prevent hazards that could lead to a grain dust explosion
Posting No Smoking signs and actively enforcing the rule
Completing regularly scheduled inspections to locate any defective wiring or sparking and make repairs as needed

Use the following format to cite this article:

Grain dust explosions. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63142/grain-dust-explosions.

Sources

Combustible dust in industry: Preventing and mitigating the effects of fire and explosions. (2005) United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Retrieved from http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib073105.html.

Grain handling. (n.d.) United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Retrieved from http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/grainhandling/index.html.

Jones, C. (2011) Preventing grain dust explosions. Oklahoma State University Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved from http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-2604/BAE-1737web.pdf.

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

LaMar Grafft, East Carolina University – grafftl@ecu.edu

Davis E. Hill, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Carol Jones, Oklahoma State University – jcarol@okstate.edu

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)

Aaron M. Yoder, University of Nebraska Medical Center – aaron.yoder@unmc.edu

May 17, 2019May 17, 2019

Confined Spaces: Hazards of Manure Gases

Use the following format to cite this article:

Confined space: Hazards of manure gases. (2012) Farm and Ranch eXtension in Safety and Health (FReSH) Community of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/pages/63141/confined-spaces:-hazards-of-manure-….

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) defines a confined space as a space that:

is large enough for a worker to enter and complete a task in,
has limited or restricted means of entry or exit, and
is not designed for continuous human occupancy.

Confined spaces on a farm or ranch in which manure handling may occur include manure pits, manure transfer pipes and deep gutters, transfer storage areas, and liquid manure spreaders. Farms and ranches continue to expand their operations to include larger manure handling systems. While these new systems are more efficient and reduce manual labor, farmers and ranchers must understand the hazards associated with working in and around confined spaces where manure is stored.

Gases inside Manure Storage Areas

The breakdown of manure is a biological process, and environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and air flow can impact the release rate of gases produced during this process. High temperature, lack of air exchange, and humidity can increase the levels of manure gases that are produced and released. The following hazardous gases form naturally in manure storage areas and are difficult to detect because of their properties, impact on a person’s sense of smell, and similarity to other odors on a farm or ranch:

Ammonia is found in manure pits or aboveground tanks used for manure storage and has a strong odor that can irritate a person’s eyes or respiratory system.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless and odorless gas associated with animal respiration and manure decomposition. Carbon dioxide can replace the oxygen in a confined space. If you breathe in air that contains high levels of carbon dioxide, this gas can replace the oxygen in your bloodstream and may result in headaches, drowsiness, and death (after prolonged exposure). Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, so it can easily accumulate in low-lying areas of confined spaces.
Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless gas that smells like rotten eggs at low levels but can overcome a person’s sense of smell at levels of 100 ppm and higher. Exposure to hydrogen sulfide can cause eye and nose irritation, headache, nausea, and death (after prolonged exposure). Hydrogen sulfide is heavier than air, so it can easily accumulate in low-lying areas of confined spaces.
Methane is a colorless and odorless gas produced during the decomposition of manure in storage. This gas is flammable and potentially explosive, especially when captured in foam that can form on the surface of stored manure. Methane is lighter than air, so it does not accumulate in low-lying areas of confined spaces.

Handheld gas detection equipment should be used to monitor gas levels prior to entry into and while occupying confined-space manure storage areas. Some equipment used to detect manure gases is configured to measure oxygen level, explosive gases (methane), and toxic gases (hydrogen sulfide).

For each of the hazardous gases mentioned above, OSHA has identified safe exposure levels for humans. Table 1 outlines the acceptable exposure limits in ppm over an eight-hour period. The oxygen level in a given space should be between 19% and 23%.

**Table 1: Acceptable Exposure Limits**
Hazardous Gas	Acceptable Exposure Limits
Ammonia	50 ppm
Carbon dioxide	5,000 ppm
Hydrogen sulfide	10 ppm
Methane	1,000 ppm

One way to reduce levels of hazardous gases is to ventilate the manure storage area using a mechanical ventilation system that forces fresh air into the space, increasing the oxygen level and decreasing the levels of explosive and toxic gases. By using a specially designed positive-pressure mechanical forced-air ventilation system, you can reduce the buildup of dangerous levels of gas. Forcing fresh air through a fan into the storage area reduces the possibility of fire or explosion caused by explosive gas coming into contact with electric fan motors. Fans should be able to move a volume of air equal to one-half the volume of the empty manure storage area every minute. Use the ANSI/ASABE S607 standard, provided by the American National Standard Institute (ANSI) and American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE), for guidance about ventilation capacity and ventilation time prior to entry and during occupancy. Click HERE for more information from Penn State Extension about the standard. To avoid the failure of a critical ventilation system during a power outage, connect the system to a standby power source that is regularly maintained and tested.

Entering Confined-Space Manure Storage Areas

If possible, avoid entering confined-space manure storage areas. If entry is unavoidable, you should fully understand the risks of entering such a space and have an entry plan that outlines your actions.

Complete the following steps when entering and working in a confined-space manure storage area:

Test the oxygen and explosive and toxic gas levels from outside the manure storage area.
Prior to entry and during occupancy, use a positive-pressure ventilation system to ventilate the manure-storage area.
Prior to entry, lock out all power sources other than the positive-pressure ventilation system to reduce the risk of stray electricity.
Wear an adjustable body harness with a lifeline attached to a rescue and retrieval system and carry a portable gas monitor.
Assign a second person to remain outside of the manure-storage area in case he or she must implement the rescue and retrieval system or get additional assistance.
Maintain verbal and visual contact with the person outside the manure storage area. The person outside the storage area should not enter the area, even in the event of an emergency.
Retest the air quality continuously during occupancy to monitor gas levels.

Additional Safety Recommendations

Remember that youth under the age of 16 are prohibited from working in confined spaces.
Post warning signs about the risks of confined spaces and gas hazards on or near all manure storage locations.
Instruct family members and employees about the hazards associated with manure storage in confined spaces. Even though most agricultural operations are not covered under OSHA regulations for confined-space entry, confined spaces exist in production agriculture, and it is vital that every person associated with the farm or ranch receive training on the hazards.
Prepare and document an entry plan for confined-space manure storage areas. Inform family members and employees about the plan.
Provide annual training for family members and employees about the entry into and emergency procedures associated with confined manure storage spaces.
Restrict access to confined spaces to authorized individuals. Remove temporary access ladders, and restrict access to permanent ladders.
Be aware that personnel and animals may need to vacate the confinement building during manure storage agitation or pumping.
Prohibit smoking in and around manure storage areas.
Operate manure agitators below the surface of liquid manure to reduce the release of manure gases.

See the Penn State Extension video below to learn more about safety concerns associated with manure storage in confined spaces.

Use the following format to cite this article:

Sources

Confined spaces. (n.d.) United States Department of Labor. Retrieved from http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/confinedspaces/index.html.

Harshman, W., Yoder, A., Hilton, J., & Murphy, D. (2004) Confined spaces. HOSTA task sheet 3.8. National Safe Tractor and Machinery Operation Program. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/sites/default/files/NSTMOP%20Task%20Sheets%20Se….

Harshman, W., Yoder, A., Hilton, J., & Murphy, D. (2004) Manure storage. HOSTA task sheet 3.11. National Safe Tractor and Machinery Operation Program. Retrieved from http://www.extension.org/sites/default/files/NSTMOP%20Task%20Sheets%20Se….

Steel, J., Murphy, D., & Manbeck, H. (2011) Confined space manure storage hazards. Penn State Extension. Retrieved from https://extension.psu.edu/confined-space-manure-storage-hazards.

Zhao, L. (2007) How to work safely around manure storage. Ohio State University Extension. No longer available online.

Reviewed and Summarized by:

Linda M. Fetzer, Pennsylvania State University – lmf8@psu.edu

LaMar Grafft, East Carolina University – grafftl@ecu.edu

Davis E. Hill, Pennsylvania State University – deh27@psu.edu

Carol Jones, Oklahoma State University – jcarol@okstate.edu

Dennis J. Murphy, Pennsylvania State University – djm13@psu.edu

J. Samuel Steel, Pennsylvania State University (Has since retired)